Table 4 Educational theories and methods of assessment

Adhikari et al., 2021 [57]

Gamification

X

• NASC-CDM scale

• Qualitative data collection: Informal debrief and semi-structured interviews (focus group or one to one)

Anbro et al., 2020 [24]

NA

X

• Predetermined verbal checkback opportunities

• Eye gaze metrics for predetermined areas of interest

Atthill et al., 2021 [25]

Experiential learning theory

X

• NASC-CDM

Blanie et al., 2020 [26]

Experiential learning theory

X

• Script concordance tests (SCT) — case-based tests consisting of short scenarios for which each trainee must interpret newly formulated information against a baseline to modulate the final decision along a 5-point Likert scale

• Self-assessment of perceived change in clinical reasoning process

• Questionnaire to assess students’ perceived satisfaction, motivation towards learning, and effectiveness of the instructional design

Bracq et al., 2021 [27]

3D model of debriefing

X

X

• Data regarding detected errors, time for detection, and trajectory patterns in the virtual OR for each participant

• Situational Awareness Rating System (SART; Taylor, 1990)

• The NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX; Hart and Staveland, 1998)

• State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI-Y; Marteau and Becker, 1992)

• Collective debriefing

• Questionnaire for attitudes and satisfaction post-simulation

Carrard et al., 2020 [28]

N/A

X

• Focus groups

Casler et al., 2022 [29]

Experiential learning theory, 3D model of debriefing

X

• Debriefing Experience Scale (DES)

• Post-test survey — open-ended questions

Chen and Liou, 2022 [30]

N/A

X

• Focus-group interviews (consisting of six 50-min sessions with 13–14 participants each)

Cieslowski and Haas, 2023 [31]

Jefferies Simulation Theory

X

X

• Debriefing after each VR simulation session

• Weekly student reflections

• Simulation Effectiveness Tool-Modified (Leighton et al., 2018) online survey

Colonna et al., 2022 [32]

NA

X

• Satisfaction with Simulation Experience Scale (SSES)

• Fast Form of Technology Acceptance Model (FF-TAM)

Du et al., 2022 [33]

NA

X

• Knowledge acquisition regarding non-technical skills (NTS) form

• Real-world scenario-based tests

• Knowledge acquisition test

Fogg et al., 2020 [34]

NA

X

X

• Lasater Clinical Judgement Rubric (LCJR)

• Individual case scores and number of attempts

Hu et al., 2022 [35]

NA

X

• Twenty multiple-choice questions to test mastery of essential disaster evacuation management educational knowledge and decision-making abilities — administered as a pre-test, posttest, and final test

• Instructional mode opinion survey

Jayasundera et al., 2022 [36]

NA

X

• Pre-post-virtual reality simulation confidence ratings (17-item questionnaire)

Sahin Karaduman and Basak, 2023 [37]

Experiential learning cycle

X

X

• NASC-CDM

• Simulation-Based Learning Evaluation Scale

• Performance assessment forms

• Student feedback forms

Pardue et al., 2022 [38]

NA

X

X

• Clinical judgement rubrics by Tanner and Lasater

• Focus groups

Kim et al., 2023 [39]

NA

X

X

• 12-item multiple-choice written examination

• NASC-CDM

• Learning immersion in simulation instrument by Ko

• The State Empathy Questionnaire by Shen

• Usability instrument by Ingrassia et al

Kiyozumi et al., 2022 [40]

Experiential learning cycle

X

• Number of clears within the VR simulation program at 5-min intervals

Kleinheksel, 2014 [41]

Constructivist theory (situated cognition and transformative learning theory)

X

• Reflection rating rubric (Cook (2010)) —clinical reasoning and implications for practice reflection

Lee et al., 2022 [42]

Experiential learning theory

X

• Multiple-choice questionnaire (MCQ) for knowledge acquisition (18 item), problem—solving (30 items)

• Likert scale questionnaire for learning satisfaction (nine items)

Lee et al., 2023 [43]

5E circular learning model

X

• Severity classification competency measurement tool (Moon)

• Confidence in Performance in Clinical Nursing Scale (Kim)

• Clinical Decision-Making in Nursing Scale (Jenkins)

• Simulation Design Scale (National League for Nursing revised by Yoo)

Mahling et al., 2023 [44]

Experiential learning

X

• Questionnaire to assess learner perspectives on the curricular implementation of VR in emergency medicine (13 items, 5-point Likert scale)

Mascarenhas et al., 2023 [45]

NA

X

• Virtual room of errors entry form

• Evaluation of the simulation experience (via Jotform)

McCallum et al., 2011 [58]

NA

X

• Semi-structured, tape-recorded, one-to-one interview

Michelet et al., 2020 [46]

NA

X

• Questionnaire based on International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation recommendations

• Neonatal resuscitation performance evaluation (NRPE) system

• Anaesthetists’ non-technical skills (ANTS) observation system

Middeke et al., 2018 [47]

NA

X

• Formative key feature examination

Mills et al., 2020 [48]

NA

X

X

• Heart rate via Polar S610i watches and chest straps

• National Aeronautics and Space Administration Task Load Index (NASA-TLX)

• Simulation Design Scale

• Triage card placement

• Focus groups

Park et al., 2022 [49]

NA

X

• Problem-Solving Process Behavior Survey (Park and Woo)

• Nurses’ Clinical Reasoning Scale (NCRS) Korean Version

• Reflective Learning Continuum (Peltier et al.)

• National League for Nursing self-confidence and satisfaction with practicum scales

Rim and Shin, 2022 [50]

Experiential learning theory

X

• Lasater Clinical Judgement Rubric

• Korean Nurses’ Core Competency Scale

Rogers, 2011 [51]

Constructivist learning theory

X

• Individual interviews

Saab et al., 2021 [52]

N/A

X

• Sociodemographic questionnaire

• Face-to-face individual/focus-group interviews

Sara et al., 2021 [53]

Gamification

X

• Clinical Reasoning Skills scale (CRS) (Levett-Jones et al.)

• Simulation metrics

Watari et al., 2020 [54]

N/A

X

• 20 multiple-choice questions — 10 knowledge and 10 clinical reasoning based. Administered before and after the intervention

Williams et al., 2020 [55]

NLN/Jefferies Simulation Framework

X

• Semi-structured questionnaire

Yang and Oh, 2022 [56]

Keller’s ARCS model

X

• Neonatal resuscitation nursing knowledge measurement tool standardized

• Problem-solving ability by adult’s tool

• Korean version of Nurses Clinical Reasoning Scale

• Self confidence in performing neonatal resuscitation tool standardized

• State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) translated in Korean

• Learning Motivation Test Paper (Son and Keller (2001))